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Talanoaga na loma ma
Ga'opo'a
by
Tuiatua Tupua Tamasese Taisi Tupuola Efi
A
linguistic perspective
Presented by
Dr Emma Kruse
Va'ai
Paper presented at the National University of
Samoa
February 27 2002
Firstly; a brief overview of
linguistic knowledge. We all have linguistic knowledge or knowledge about
language but when we know a language from birth we simply use it without
necessarily realizing its different components. Basically, when we know a
language - we know how to speak it and we can be understood by others. We have
knowledge of the sound system and the meanings of words that we
use.
Through the study of linguistics we have come to identify what we
call language universals. This means all languages of the world have the same
basic components. A language, any human language has
a sound system -
phonology;
a system of meanings - semantics;
rules of word
formation - morphology
rules of sentence formation - syntax
We
learn how to use these basic elements of language in a way that is understood
by others who speak the same language but as well through our own
creativity we are able to devise interesting, colourful, different, new
ways of using language which keeps it alive and vibrant. Through creativity we
are able to speak and write using figures of speech which relate to our own
context, recombine words to make up sentences, which are meaningful and
memorable such as we, see when we read Talanoaga.
The Samoan
sound system is dominated by the vowels a/e/i/o/u and its various articulations
and it has 12 consonants. The English sound system also has vowels and
consonants but a wider range than Samoan as indicated by the English alphabet
and the various ways in which vowels are articulated as exemplified by the many
different accents or articulation of English throughout the world for example
American English vs Australian English. We have a similar occurrence with NZ
born and raised Samoan speakers whose vowel use resemble more the NZ vowels
than the Samoan vowels and certainly the glottal stops in Samoan such as
a'a/e'e/i'i/ o'o/u'u pose difficulties because such sound combinations do not
normally occur in NZ English. Similarly the use of plosives such as the /p/ /f/
and /t/ sounds are distinctively palagi sounding in an utterance such as
"Poo faapefea mai outou?" Such distinctions may also extend to fluctuations in
the pitch and loudness of voice, rhythm and placement of stress in delivery and
choice of particular words. We have a similar local situation with children who
may have been born and raised in Samoa but speak mainly or only English so that
when speaking Samoan it is obvious that their articulation of sounds is very
much influenced by English. The sound system of Samoan also has rules which we
have to follow when we create a new Samoan word. Therefore a Samoan word may
begin with a vowel or a consonant, can have vowels in a row or a vowel on its
own but consonants can never occur in this way. All Samoan words must also end
with a vowel. Therefore an English word such as television is translated to
accord with the Samoan sound system through ending the word with vowel /e/ as
in televise in place of the consonant combination that ends the English word.
Another example is the English word spoon. In Samoan the vowel /i/ is inserted
between the sp consonant combination and the vowel /i/ also added to the end so
that we have the Samoan word sipuni. Basically this is how we derive
Samoan words from English and other languages.
Semantics is the system
of meanings. How do we convey meaning through speech and writing? Again it is
the combination of words, the way in which we say them and when using
figurative language we have to understand the context of usage to fully
appreciate the meaning of an utterance. Samoan, like many languages of the
world is loaded with figurative language from its own cultural context and from
the strong biblical influence which has been congruously woven into Samoan
discourse. This is strongly evident in oratory or speeches. The speeches in
this text show much of this kind of language-use to convey
meaning.
Morphology - rules of word formation points partly to the
phonology and to the rules which govern the making up of words. For example the
word savali as a verb is singular and when we have several people
walking it changes to savavali. In English the main verb (in this
sentence walking) remains the same whilst the auxiliary verb (is >
are) changes: He is walking /They are walking. We
also look at where does a word begin when written and where does it end for
example ou te / oute lemafai / le mafai.
Syntax looks at sentence
formation and each language has its own rules and different combinations for
sentence formation. Differences between languages can be explained through
terms such as subject-verb. In Samoan Ua savali le tama is a
verb-subject (VS) sequence. In English it is different; the subject comes
before the verb. The boy is walking (SV) the limitless combinations and
sequences which are uttered in sentences are part and parcel of language user's
creativity which shows ability or competence in language use. And these are
what we see in Tuiatua's text - language in use. This linguistic overview is
but a very simplistic summary on my part to try and link this text to the idea
that it has value because it is written and recorded -it is a text of language
use therefore can be used and enjoyed by all especially those interested in
language.
I want also to briefly discuss the social aspects of language
before I discuss the text directly. There are many languages in the world but
within these languages there are also varieties of usage as shown by different
words being used in different villages for different things or purposes. There
is the well-known demarcation between formal and informal language. We can also
discuss language through the terms prescriptive and descriptive or standard vs
non-standard. In Samoan the bible has often been the text recommended for
prescriptive or standard use. How it should be and this is often associated
with a conservative, authoritative attitude to language - do as you are told -
stay the same - conform to the standard at all times. Descriptive use of
language is how it is actually used in all its multifarious ways despite the
pressure to conform to a defined standard. Language does change despite
people's efforts to preserve it. The social environment changes through various
means and language also reflect that change. The introduction of English into
Samoa through the missionaries, traders and colonizers was a social change
which also affected language use. Today Samoa is bilingual. We teach English in
Schools, we use English in our speech, we use English to communicate with
others. It is the language of commerce and we also use it to communicate with
members of our families who have grown up in English speaking countries such as
New Zealand. Our codes of conduct are also affected by language choice and use
- when we use the Samoan /t/ language we often take on a respectful stance, in
church we speak softly and respectfully, on the sports field we use a different
type of language. In fact on the sports field bilingualism is very evident with
most of the sports terms remaining in English throughout a Samoan commentary
whether from a journalist or the audience yelling from the sidelines. This
variety and change in language use is governed by sociolinguistic
considerations of: Who speaks What to Whom and When.
In this text the
writer unwittingly seeks to be understood in what he is trying to say. His
thoughts and feelings on a wide range of issues and topics are woven in words
carefully selected to suit the audience, the time and the purpose of each
delivery.
When we learn a language naturally as we do with our first
language our mother tongue we cover these language universals or that which all
languages have. We are also all endowed with the gift of creativity which
enables us to change and mould the language in a way which is uniquely
individual although the language we use is owned by many, not
one.
Tuiatua's text of language in use is an excellent literary text and
a very useful tool for language users. Throughout we can say here is an example
of the use of these words - matafaioi, o le 'afu'afu, seanoa, temokarasi,
lautogia, palotai and the list goes on. We see phrases in use such as e
pei o le asiosio le felelei mai o upu, Tatou sula ile oti, tatou sula ile ola,
E le gaoia le alofa and the list goes on.
It is a Samoan language
text but as in everyday usage there are times when it is obvious that for
effect and sometimes clearer understanding - English terms are used within a
Samoan speaking context- for example o lo'o talosaga pea ise feasibility
report po'o se polokalame faataatia mo le galuega tele; faatau
shares ile Brewery; ole privatization, o fea se fee
a le loia; o le fatu ma le autu lea o le transparency ma le
accountability. The fact is two languages operate in Samoa - Samoan
and English. Samoan speakers will make use of this - sometimes the two
languages are spoken or used separately; sometimes interchangeably or mixed and
such choices are determined by the context of a situation as in who
speaks what to whom and when.
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And included in this sociolinguistic
situation are the various paralinguistic features of |
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Articulation, tone and pitch of
voice, the kinesics of language such as facial expression |
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and gestures; and the proxemics or
physical distance between people whether one is |
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sitting, standing or crouching (as in
a ifoga). How far away or closely one |
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Positions oneself communicates
information about the social relationships between the |
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participants. To know how to keep
one's distance physically and socially in terms |
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of human relations is also implied by
the Samoan phrase - teu le va |
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In p.4 Tuiatua refers to this social
contextualisation of language whereby parents have an |
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urgent desire or naunau for
children to acquire all these sociolinguistic attributes upon |
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the arrival of a certain person
amongst their midst. A prescribed form of sociolinguistic |
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behaviour is suddenly
pressured or imposed upon the children when in fact they have not |
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had the time, environment and
guidance to be competent. |
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E i ai nisi o o'u aiga I Niu Sila,
Ausetalia ma Amelika, oute taunuu atu loa i ai , e foliga |
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o a'u nei o se asiosio. E mana'o
matua e fo'I le aiga i le gagana ma le aga e masani ai |
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Samoa. Ua le sao se la'a a fanau.
Nofo i lalo! Ui atu I tua! Tulou! Ta'i valea nei tamaiti! |
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Aumai se tipoti ma se laulau!`Aua
le pisa! O i tua! |
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Ua manao matua e liua fanau in ni
nai minute. |
This particular reference from the text also
engages with the sensitive question of language and culture, language and
identity. The diaspora of Samoans overseas makes it more and more difficult for
succeeding generations to maintain the language of their parents whilst the
countries in which they live; speak another language (mainly English). The
questions of identity loom large for New Zealand, American, Alaska, Australian
or any outside born Samoan. Are they always to be referred to as
other? Will they not fully qualify as Samoan if they cannot speak
Samoan? And if they do speak Samoan will their articulation of vowels and
consonants show up and reveal that they are different, from outside - mai
fafo? And therefore marginalized as other? Meanwhile they
participate in other social activities which do not require speaking in Samoan
such as the earning and sending of remittances to sustain and maintain the
authentic faa Samoa here at home.
Varieties of Samoan language
emerge as part of change. Change of environment, change of people, change of
language. Language reflects social change. This can be seen by those who
subscribe to the prescriptive or purist notion of language as the deterioration
of language. Examples abound from both local and overseas situations for
example sikulaki - which used to be a leoleo po but with the
donning of a uniform his/her status has been superficially lifted from the
'umble leoleo po with his lavalava and tshirt and eight battery torch to a much
more western image as we see in the movies. There are other examples of word
usage such as vasti, seu, sekueli, mea strong and even si a'u
menti, which has been queried in parliament as to whether this is a Samoan
word and what does it mean. Another excellent example of language change and
colloquial language usage is to be heard on the radio - Sumeo on FM. Sumeo in
his morning exchange takes bilingualism to the limits with his translations and
transformations from English to Samoan, Samoan to English or a mixture that
aims at entertainment through recognition. Sumeo brings out the scenarios which
Samoans have agonized through in trying to learn English as second language -
usage in business letters, love letters, as a taxi driver as a shop assistant,
a husband and wife tiff, a school teacher and student situation and many others
as they occur throughout the days of our lives. This mix of English and Samoan
is also a popular subject in faleaitu.
This wide range of varieties of
language is reacted to in as wide a variety of ways as there are different
people with different feelings and opinions and backgrounds.
A wave
model of linguistic change can also explain what is happening in Samoa.
Consider dropping a stone in the middle of a pool. The waves or ripples closest
to the center have the strongest force and the further out the ripples or waves
move from the center the weaker they become. This is one way of looking at the
Samoan migrants and their children; because they are so far away the influence
of Samoan language and culture as practiced in Samoa supposedly becomes weaker.
We look at exceptions to the theory whereby some who are also at the center are
also weak in language and cultural ability despite central location. So then
what can we do? The writing of texts such as Talanoaga provides a remedy to the
situation. It is one form of access to language and culture -through the
written form. Even though we wish for oratorical ability and competence in
cultural activities many of us have not had the experience and fortune of being
groomed in faa Samoa. Ruperake Petaia's poem entitled Kidnapped and
Father and Son attest to this common situation of western education
affecting ones ability in one's own culture and language. Samoa is not alone in
this situation - it is part of the postcolonial legacy, which we share with
other countries. Talanoaga provides access to Samoan language use and
cultural practice because language delivers the practice whether it is a
celebration, a lament, an opinion, an apology, an expression of
comfort.
Another strong aspect of the text which I wish to comment
briefly on is in the area of semantics - meanings of words : common meanings,
wider and deeper meanings; meanings which are significant to a person, a
family, a village a society such as Samoa. The question "What's in a name?" is
a significant one for Samoans as it was for Shakepearean society. In addressing
individuals by name, in addressing villages by name Tuiatua often provides a
historical context of how those words came about and were given as names. O
le mafuaaga ole lupe tuaefuefu (p.154); Tausuluga o le Afi o Aopo (p. 159)
begins with the historical significance and meaning of that name. ...Faapea
o tua tonu lava o Aopo I le 1912 e i ai le mata o le afi. E pei o aga masani in
ona po... So also is there strength in the selection of words to express
feelings that are attributed to family, to aiga. Words expressed to the
elderly women especially those who have lived away from Samoa but carry their
aiga and all their links with Samoa in their hearts and minds so much so that
to die or to be buried in Samoa in the midst of their aiga and all that is dear
to them is their final joy. E naunau le mutia i le sau ona e faaola totoga
-Aemaise pe a aga'i ina matua e faaola totoga lou faasinomaga, lou aiga, lau
ekalesia, lou `ele`ele, o ou tupu`aga, o ou uso, o ou tuagane, lau fanau. ...E
faaola totoga le mafutaga mafana.
Other words emerge from the matai
- the male leader in the forefront. In the frontline his bulletproof vest is
not upon his chest but emanating from his back, the tapuaiga of the
elderly women of the aiga in the background. ...Mo a'u o loo tausia le aiga,
e leai se faala'ei'au e sili atu le malosi i lo lo'u iloa o loo tapua'ia o'u
faiva e tina matutua o lo'u aiga. E faapea lava mo so'o se matai o se aiga. O
le `au'upega sili aemaise i taimi o tofotofoga, o le alofa ma le tapuaiga I
tina matutua.(p.159)
In a semantic sense this important Samoan word
tapuaiga encompasses an image of endurance, an everlasting vigil or
continuing prayer of support and alofa associated with the ever-burning evening
fires of home. Such words as tapuaiga are examples of the semantics of
Samoan culture woven in words to bind, to have and to hold. The names of
people, places, events, houses, finemats... are all part of our history and
this history is passed down if we speak if we write also what we speak
whether it is an eulogy at a funeral, a birthday, a political speech, an
apology ... it is language in use that carries the message from the sender to
the receiver. The words are chosen unconsciously or consciously for that time
and place, for that audience so as to record in the minds and hears of people
what was said to whom and when and why it was important.
Talanoaga
no loma ma Ga'opo'a. This a language and literary text that is for all
seasons. It records the words of the past, words of the present and provides
another means of making sure that our gagana Samoa will live on. We look
forward to more texts for us and for our children to be written by Tuiatua and
many others who also have the gift and have much to offer to our present and
future generations.
Faafetai lava mo le avanoa.
Emma Kruse
Va'ai |
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